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NOTE: The following summary focuses on context and background for World War I.

The United States began the 19th century as a new nation, little different from the original thirteen colonies along the east coast. Over the next hundred years, it vastly increased in size and population, and developed into the world’s largest agricultural and industrial economy. For most of this period, the U.S. focused on internal economic, political and social issues, but near the end of the century, it acquired overseas interests that involved it with international affairs.

In the first half of the century, the United States established itself as a viable nation and the dominant power in North America. The U.S. victory over the British in the War of 1812 firmly secured its independence. The Louisiana Purchase (1803) and victory in the Mexican American War (1846-48) expanded its territory across the continent. Protected by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the U.S. avoided involvement in international politics. Through the Monroe Doctrine (1823), the U.S. claimed its status as the primary power in the Western Hemisphere while reaffirming its policy of remaining out of European affairs. During this period, the nation’s population grew rapidly, from 5 million in 1800 to 23 million by 1850.

The middle part of the century was dominated by debate and conflict over slavery, culminating in the American Civil War. The Union’s victory over the seceding states of the Confederacy ensured that the United States would continue as a single, unified nation. However, divisions and resentments between Northern and Southern states remained. Furthermore, although the Civil War ended slavery, black Americans were not integrated into American society, and were forced to embark on a struggle for equal rights and opportunities that continues to this day.

In the latter part of the century, the United States transformed from an inwardly-focused nation of small farmers and merchants to an industrial society with overseas interests.

Settlement and development of the West drove much of this economic growth. Drawn by free lands granted by the Homestead Acts, settlers cleared and cultivated millions of acres of land for farming. The discovery and development of oil fields and major metal deposits fueled industrial production. Innovations in manufacturing led factories to spring up in cities and towns across America. Railroads transported resources and goods throughout the country, and to coastal ports for overseas trade. The first modern corporations were formed from the consolidation of railroad, oil, and steel companies, and major banks arose to invest in the new industrial economy.

The U.S. population continued to grow, reaching over 90 million by 1910. This growth was fueled in part by a surge in immigration between 1880 and 1910. 17 million immigrants, attracted by the promise of free land and better wages, expanded the size of the American workforce while increasing the diversity of American society. At the same time, the expansion of industrial production and increased mechanization of farming led millions of Americans to move from the countryside into cities. In 1860 just one in five Americans lived in a city; by 1910, nearly half the population were city-dwellers.

Industrialization and urbanization came at a cost. Conditions in factories were dangerous and often unsanitary. The rapid, unplanned growth of cities resulted in unsafe and unhealthy living conditions in working class neighborhoods. Child labor was widespread. Immigrant laborers with limited English faced exploitation and discrimination. Political machines controlled cities through bribery and corruption. Unregulated corporations and banks created monopolies that controlled entire industries and were able to manipulate prices and wages.

The Progressive movement arose in response to these problems. Labor activists and unions fought for improved conditions, fairer wages, and shorter work weeks. Journalists exposed abuses and corruption by politicians and corporations. Legislatures passed laws restricting child labor and creating new schools and compulsory education. The Women’s Suffrage movement gained new momentum thanks to a series of victories that gave women the vote in many western states. Progressive leaders put in place laws regulating the activities of corporations and banks. The era marked the beginning of broader government influence in the day-to-day lives of American citizens.

Near very end of the 19^th century, the United States acquired significant overseas interests for the first time. Its victory over Spain in the Spanish-American War (1898) gave it control of nearby Cuba and Puerto Rico as well as the far-off Philippine Islands and Guam. These acquisitions spurred the U.S. to annex Hawaii, American Samoa, and other Pacific Islands in order to support it new possessions.

Thus, by 1914, the United States was the world’s leading agricultural producer and industrial power. Its population was larger than any European nation except Russia. Most Americans remained hesitant to become involved in international issues. However, the nation’s multicultural population, increased trade and financial ties to Europe, and overseas territories made it more connected that ever before to global affairs.

NOTE: The following summary focuses on context and background for World War I.

Europe

In the century before World War One, Europe experienced an era of relative peace and prosperity. From 1815 – 1914, European nations used alliances to maintain the balance of power, so that no single country could become too powerful. A number of wars were fought during this period, but these were limited in scale. New powers arose (Germany, Italy) while older ones faded (Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary), but overall, there was a sense of stability.

However, powerful forces were developing that would push Europe’s nations into a major conflict that would ultimately draw in much of the world. Industrialization increased the capacity of nations to produce the tools of war on a mass scale. Thanks to advances in medicine, food cultivation and transportation, the population of Europe tripled, expanding the manpower pool available for military service. Nationalism was on the rise, driven in the larger nations by competition for overseas colonies. In addition, minority populations within the larger powers (especially Austria Hungary and the Ottoman Empire) increasingly demanded the right to govern themselves. The system of alliances between the larger nations expanded to include additional agreements between major powers and lesser nations.

Thus, by 1914 every major European power possessed a growing industrial economy and the ability to field a massive army of willing patriots, and was connected to a web of obligations and guarantees that entangled nearly every country in Europe.

The World

Over the course of the 19th century, much of the world came under European rule. Competition for colonies greatly accelerated, driven by the need for both raw materials and markets to feed Europe’s growing industrial economies. With the exception of the United States, Central and South America, the Ottoman Empire and Japan, most of the Earth’s population was under the control of a European power. When war came, territories in every corner of the globe would send manpower and resources to Europe, or would themselves become battlegrounds.

Women have played important roles in all of America’s wars. However, World War I marked the first time women directly contributed to the war effort on a wide scale.

Women in uniform

World War One was the first war in which women formally served in the U.S. military. The largest group was the Army Nurse Corps: over 20,000 served, and 10,000 went overseas. Nurses were often close to the front lines, and experienced artillery and gas attacks. They provided medical care to over 200,000 wounded men. During the worldwide influenza epidemic of 1918-19, over 200 nurses died caring for sick service members.

In addition, over 400 women served under the U.S. Army Signal Corps as telephone operators in France. These “Hello Girls” spoke English and French, and played a vital role in connecting Allied communications. Although they served with the Army, they were considered civilians, and did not receive government recognition as military veterans until 60 years after the war.

Due to the Army’s manpower needs, the Navy was short of key personnel. It recruited over 11,000 women as “Yeomanettes”, who served as clerical staff, electricians, drivers, mechanics, and more. The Marine Corps and Coast Guard also recruited women for the first time.

Volunteer organizations

American women had been a part of European relief efforts since the beginning of the war. (See p X). Once the United States entered the fighting, thousands more joined efforts at home and overseas. The YMCA helped the Army provide welfare and comfort services. The Salvation Army’s contingent was smaller, but beloved for its “Donut Dollies.” Tens of thousands of Red Cross volunteers provided numerous services for troops overseas, and Red Cross nurses worked alongside their Army counterparts. Wealthy women established hospitals and aid programs, and in some cases traveled to Europe to run them personally.

Wartime Work

The expansion of the military in 1917-18 drew 16 percent of the U.S> male workforce into military service. Women were called upon to fill jobs as factory workers, clerical staff, drivers, technicians, researchers… virtually every position in every field or industry. These women were released from their jobs as men returned home after the war. However, they had proved that females could handle “masculine” work, and set the example for the “Rosie the Riveters” of World War II and future generations of working women.

Impact

The contributions of women in WWI allowed the U.S. military to focus all its available men and resources on fighting the war. These women not only led the way for today’s military women, but also enhanced the position and influence of women in American society in general.

In particular, their service provided momentum for the Women’s Suffrage movement, aimed at winning voting rights for women. President Woodrow Wilson resisted the effort for years, but he finally endorsed it in 1918, saying: “we have made partners of the women in this war… Shall we admit them only to a partnership of suffering and sacrifice and toil and not to a partnership of privilege and right?” Wilson’s words reflected a wartime change in attitudes shared by many American men. Two years later, the 19th Amendment to the Constitution gave women the right to vote.